We acknowledge funding from Arnold Ventures, the Bezos Family Foundation, the National Governors Association, the Stanford Impact Labs, the Stuart Foundation, and the Walton Family Foundation. We thank Lila DiMasi, Kelly Flynn, Luca Moreno-Louzada, Liz Reosti, Chihiro Tanigawa, and Daniel Werner for excellent research assistance. We are grateful to Yondr for their partnership and for providing access to administrative data. We also thank Sahaan Sozhamannan, Peter Stiepleman, and Bianca Larry at Yondr for helpful collaboration and support. The study was pre-registered, and the pre-analysis plan is publicly available at https://osf.io/8twh9/overview. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

Hunt Allcott Hunt Allcott has done consulting work on matters related to technology companies.