I. INTRODUCTION Section: Choose Top of page ABSTRACT I. INTRODUCTION << II. PROPOSED EXPERIMENTAL... III. THEORETICAL PREDICTI... IV. PROPOSED EXPERIMENTAL... V. CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

6 tweets, 294 × 109 emails, 4 × 106 gigabytes of Facebook data, 65 × 109 WhatsApp messages, and 720 000 h of new content added daily on YouTube. 1 The world’s data explained: How much we’re producing and where it’s all stored ,” World Economic Forum, May 2021, available at 1. M. M. Vopson, “,” World Economic Forum, May 2021, available at https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/05/world-data-produced-stored-global-gb-tb-zb/ 21 bits, 2 2. See https://www.idc.com/ for estimates of the annual digital information production in the world. 21 bits. This grew to 59 ZB in 2020 and is predicted to reach a 175 ZB by 2025. 1 The world’s data explained: How much we’re producing and where it’s all stored ,” World Economic Forum, May 2021, available at 1. M. M. Vopson, “,” World Economic Forum, May 2021, available at https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/05/world-data-produced-stored-global-gb-tb-zb/ 3 The information catastrophe ,” AIP Adv. 10, 085014 (2020). 3. M. M. Vopson, “,” AIP Adv., 085014 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0019941 3 The information catastrophe ,” AIP Adv. 10, 085014 (2020). 3. M. M. Vopson, “,” AIP Adv., 085014 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0019941 Since IBM’s development of the first magnetic hard disk drive (RAMAC) in 1956, digital information storage technologies have radically transformed our modern society. In binary code, digital information is stored as logical 1s and 0s, known as bits. Bits of information can be stored in any material capable of displaying two distinctive and switchable physical states (magnetic, electric, optical, and resistive) by allocating a logical 0 or 1 to each physical state. Digital information became so entrenched in all aspects of our society that the recent growth in information production appears to be unstoppable. Each day on Earth we generate 500 × 10tweets, 294 × 10emails, 4 × 10gigabytes of Facebook data, 65 × 10WhatsApp messages, and 720 000 h of new content added daily on YouTube.In 2018, the total amount of data created, captured, copied, and consumed in the world was 33 zettabytes (ZB) or the equivalent of 264 × 10bits,where 1 ZB is 8 × 10bits. This grew to 59 ZB in 2020 and is predicted to reach a 175 ZB by 2025.The incredible amount of digital data being created annually at planetary scale triggered a recent study, in which it has been estimated that at the current digital information production growth rate, ∼350 years from now we will create more digital bits than all atoms on Earth.This theoretically predicted phenomenon was termed the information catastrophe.

80 bits to the amount of digital data that could be stored in the whole universe. 4 Estimation of the information contained in the visible matter of the universe ,” AIP Adv. 11(10), 105317 (2021). 4. M. M. Vopson, “,” AIP Adv.(10), 105317 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0064475 −), proton (p+), and neutron (n0). When quarks were taken into account, the maximum amount of information that could be stored per elementary particle became 1.509 bits. 4 Estimation of the information contained in the visible matter of the universe ,” AIP Adv. 11(10), 105317 (2021). 4. M. M. Vopson, “,” AIP Adv.(10), 105317 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0064475 An interesting exercise is then to estimate the fundamental limit of digital data storage as dictated by the physical realities of our universe and its governing laws. In other words, restricting the estimate to material forms of data storage, the smallest size of a digital bit would have to be the smallest bit of matter that is stable and can exist on its own. It has been concluded that the smallest theoretical size of digital bits would have to be the elementary particles, as they are the smallest known building blocks of matter in the universe. Of course, this is a theoretical limit assuming that, at some distant future, data storage technologies will be developed to allow write/read of digital data to/from elementary particles. Nevertheless, this is very instructive as the recent estimate gave an upper limit of ∼6 × 10bits to the amount of digital data that could be stored in the whole universe.The study was based on Shannon’s information theory, assuming the most effective compression mechanism, which yielded a value of 1.288 bits of information stored per electron (e), proton (p), and neutron (n). When quarks were taken into account, the maximum amount of information that could be stored per elementary particle became 1.509 bits.Hence, the estimate of the information content of the observable universe could be interpreted as the maximum amount of information that could be stored digitally if the universe was a giant data storage device. However, the author of the study argued that this is not just a theoretical upper limit of information storage capacity, but, in fact, the elementary particles already store information about themselves. It has been proposed that this information could be seen as a particle DNA, or a matter DNA, and it physically represents the distinguishable degrees of freedom of each particle or pure quantum states.

5,6 Irreversibility and heat generation in the computing process ,” IBM J. Res. Dev. 5(3), 183– 191 (1961). 5. R. Landauer, “,” IBM J. Res. Dev.(3), 183–(1961). https://doi.org/10.1147/rd.53.0183 The physical nature of information ,” Phys. Lett. A 217(4–5), 188– 193 (1996). 6. R. Landauer, “,” Phys. Lett. A(4–5), 188–(1996). https://doi.org/10.1016/0375-9601(96)00453-7 7–10 Experimental test of Landauer’s principle in single-bit operations on nanomagnetic memory bits ,” Sci. Adv. 2(3), e1501492 (2016). 7. J. Hong, B. Lambson, S. Dhuey, and J. Bokor, “,” Sci. Adv.(3), e1501492 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1501492 Quantum Landauer erasure with a molecular nanomagnet ,” Nat. Phys. 14, 565– 568 (2018). 8. R. Gaudenzi, E. Burzurí, S. Maegawa, H. van der Zant, and F. Luis, “,” Nat. Phys., 565–(2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41567-018-0070-7 Experimental verification of Landauer’s principle linking information and thermodynamics ,” Nature 483, 187– 189 (2012). 9. A. Bérut, A. Arakelyan, A. Petrosyan, S. Ciliberto, R. Dillenschneider, and E. Lutz, “,” Nature, 187–(2012). https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10872 High-precision test of Landauer’s principle in a feedback trap ,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 113(19), 190601 (2014). 10. Y. Jun, M. Gavrilov, and J. Bechhoefer, “,” Phys. Rev. Lett.(19), 190601 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1103/physrevlett.113.190601 11 The mass-energy-information equivalence principle ,” AIP Adv. 9, 095206 (2019). 11. M. M. Vopson, “,” AIP Adv., 095206 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5123794 5,6 Irreversibility and heat generation in the computing process ,” IBM J. Res. Dev. 5(3), 183– 191 (1961). 5. R. Landauer, “,” IBM J. Res. Dev.(3), 183–(1961). https://doi.org/10.1147/rd.53.0183 The physical nature of information ,” Phys. Lett. A 217(4–5), 188– 193 (1996). 6. R. Landauer, “,” Phys. Lett. A(4–5), 188–(1996). https://doi.org/10.1016/0375-9601(96)00453-7 11,12 The mass-energy-information equivalence principle ,” AIP Adv. 9, 095206 (2019). 11. M. M. Vopson, “,” AIP Adv., 095206 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5123794 12. M. M. Vopson, The information content of the universe and the implications for the missing Dark Matter, June 2019. In 1961, Landauer first proposed the idea that a digital information bit is physical and it has a well-defined energy associated with it.This is known as the Landauer principle and it was recently confirmed experimentally.In a different study, using Shannon’s information theory and thermodynamic considerations, the Landauer principle has been extended to the Mass–Energy–Information (M/E/I) equivalence principle.The M/E/I principle states that information is a form of matter, it is physical, and it can be identified by a specific mass per bit while it stores information or by an energy dissipation following the irreversible information erasure operation, as dictated by the Landauer principle.The M/E/I principle has been formulated while strictly discussing digital states of information. However, because Shannon’s information theory is applicable to all forms of information systems and it is not restricted only to digital states, the author extrapolated the applicability of the M/E/I principle to all forms of information, proposing that information is the fifth state of matter.These ideas, regarded as the information conjectures, are truly transformational because, without violating any laws of physics, they offer possible explanations to a number of unsolved problems in physics, as well as complementing and expanding our understanding of all branches of physics and the universe and its governing laws. Hence, testing experimentally these information conjectures is of extreme importance.

11 The mass-energy-information equivalence principle ,” AIP Adv. 9, 095206 (2019). 11. M. M. Vopson, “,” AIP Adv., 095206 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5123794 −25 kg, making the measurement unachievable with our current technologies. The first proposed experiment to test the M/E/I equivalence principle involved the measurement of the mass change in 1 Tb data storage device before and after the digital information is completely erased.At room temperature, the calculated mass change for this experiment is in the order of ∼10kg, making the measurement unachievable with our current technologies.

11 The mass-energy-information equivalence principle ,” AIP Adv. 9, 095206 (2019). 11. M. M. Vopson, “,” AIP Adv., 095206 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5123794 N e− electrons, N p+ protons, and N n0 neutrons. If each elementary particle contains I bits of information, then a mass m would contain N b bits of information, N b = I ⋅ m N A A N e − + 3 N p + + N n 0 , (1) where N A is Avogadro’s number, N A = 6.022 × 1023 mol−1, and the factor of 3 accounts for the fact that each proton and each neutron are made up of three quarks. The recent prediction of the information mass content per elementary particle allows us to extend this experimental idea beyond digital data storage to a simple material body of mass m. Because the mass of information is temperature dependent,in this experiment, one could simply confirm the information conjectures by observing the effect of the temperature change on the information mass content of elementary particles contained within a physical body of a known mass. Let us consider a random mono-atomic solid of mass m made up of identical atoms of atomic mass weight A, each atom containingelectrons,protons, andneutrons. If each elementary particle containsbits of information, then a masswould containbits of information,where Nis Avogadro’s number, N= 6.022 × 10mol, and the factor of 3 accounts for the fact that each proton and each neutron are made up of three quarks.

11 The mass-energy-information equivalence principle ,” AIP Adv. 9, 095206 (2019). 11. M. M. Vopson, “,” AIP Adv., 095206 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5123794 ΔT, the general expression of the information mass change Δminf of a body of mass m is Δ m inf = I ⋅ m N A k b Δ T ⁡ ln 2 A c 2 N e − + 3 N p + + N n 0 , (2) where k b = 1.380 64 × 10−23 J/K is the Boltzmann constant and c is the speed of light. According to the M/E/I principle,for a temperature change, the general expression of the information mass changeof a body of mass m iswhere k= 1.380 64 × 10J/K is the Boltzmann constant and c is the speed of light.

Relation (2) predicts a temperature dependence of the information mass change.

Hence, one could design an experiment to measure the mass change inflicted by a temperature change to the body mass m. Since the physical mass of the material under test does not change with the temperature (assuming solid materials are thermally and chemically stable), the detected mass change can only be related to the information mass change, providing a direct confirmation of the proposed information conjectures.

m = 1 kg copper (Cu), with each Cu atom containing N e− = 29 electrons, N p+ = 29 protons, and N n0 = 34.5 neutrons. The fractional value of N n0 accounts for the existence of the two Cu isotopes containing 34 neutrons (70%) and 36 neutrons (30%), respectively. This proportion of isotopes gives a relative atomic mass number A = 63.55 g. If each subatomic elementary particle contains I = 1.509 bits of information as predicted previously, 4 Estimation of the information contained in the visible matter of the universe ,” AIP Adv. 11(10), 105317 (2021). 4. M. M. Vopson, “,” AIP Adv.(10), 105317 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0064475 N b = 29.8 × 1026 bits. Let us assume a metallic body of= 1 kg copper (Cu), with each Cu atom containing= 29 electrons,= 29 protons, and= 34.5 neutrons. The fractional value ofaccounts for the existence of the two Cu isotopes containing 34 neutrons (70%) and 36 neutrons (30%), respectively. This proportion of isotopes gives a relative atomic mass number= 63.55 g. If each subatomic elementary particle contains= 1.509 bits of information as predicted previously,then using (1) we obtain the total number of bits of information stored in a kg of Cu as= 29.8 × 10bits.

Δminf = 3.33 × 10−11 kg. This value significantly improves the required measurement resolution relative to the initial proposed experiment (Δminf ∼ 10−25 kg), but an accurate measurement of ∼10−11 kg is still extremely challenging. For a temperature change ΔT = 100 K of the Cu sample (cooling or heating), using (2) we obtain an absolute value of information mass change of= 3.33 × 10kg. This value significantly improves the required measurement resolution relative to the initial proposed experiment (∼ 10kg), but an accurate measurement of ∼10kg is still extremely challenging.

Therefore, in this paper, we combine the estimates of the information content per elementary particle, with the M/E/I equivalence principle, to formulate a new experimental protocol suitable to test the information conjectures.